نابرابری درآمدی و تغییرات سهم ارزش‏افزودۀ صنایع: نقشِ شدت استفاده از عوامل تولید در اقتصاد ایران

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 کارشناسی ارشد اقتصاد، گروه اقتصاد، دانشکدۀ اقتصاد، مدیریت و حسابداری، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران

2 استادیار گروه اقتصاد، دانشکدۀ اقتصاد، مدیریت و حسابداری، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران (نویسنده مسئول)

3 دانشیار گروه اقتصاد، دانشکدۀ اقتصاد، مدیریت و حسابداری، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران

10.22084/aes.2024.29605.3704

چکیده

نوع صنایع رشددهندۀ اقتصاد براساس شدت استفاده آن‌­ها از عوامل تولید، تعیین‌­کنندۀ نحوۀ توزیع درآمد در یک جامعه است. اگر به‌شدت استفادۀ صنایع از عوامل تولید توجه نشود، ممکن است یک کشور رشد تولید را همراه با بدتر شدن توزیع درآمد تجربه کند. هدف پژوهش حاضر، بررسی اثر تغییر در سهم ارزش‏افزودۀ صنایع با لحاظ شدت استفاده از عامل تولید بر نابرابری درآمدی در اقتصاد ایران است. به این‌منظور، از روش گشتاورهای تعمیم‌‏‏یافتۀ (GMM) و داده‌‏های 31 استان طی دورۀ زمانی 1390 تا 1399 استفاده شده است. نتایج نشان‌داد که افزایش نسبی سهم ارزش­‌افزودۀ صنایع کاربر و منابع‌‏طبیعی‏بر منجر به کاهش نابرابری درآمدی در کشور می‌‏شود. هم‌چنین تأثیر درآمد سرانه بر نابرابری مثبت و تأثیر متغیرهای سطح سواد شاغلان و مخارج بهداشتی بر نابرابری منفی به‌دست آمده است که مطابق انتظار نظری است. با توجه به فراوانی نسبی نیروی کار و منابع طبیعی در ایران، طبق نظریۀ «هکشر-اوهلین»، صنایع مذکور مزیت‌­های نسبی کشور را نشان می‌­دهند و دنبال کردن مزیت‌­های نسبی موجب بهبود توزیع درآمد می‌­شود. این نتیجه با قضیۀ استالپر-ساموئلسن سازگار است؛ بنابراین، اگر ساز و کار نظام بازار جایگزین دخالت‌­های دولتی در روند تعیین قیمت در بازار عوامل تولید یا گزینش صنایع اولویت‌‏دار شود، نه‌تنها کارایی اقتصادی مختل نخواهد شد، بلکه توزیع درآمد نسبت به وضعیت فعلی بهبود خواهد یافت.  

کلیدواژه‌ها

موضوعات

عنوان مقاله [English]

Income Inequality and the Share of Value Added of Industries: The Role of Production Factors Intensity in Iran’s Economy Shahin Keshavarz Rezaei

نویسندگان [English]

  • Shahin Keshavarz Rezaei 1
  • Mohammad Hassan Zare 2
  • Mehdi Hajamini 3
1 MA Student of Economics, Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics, Management and Accounting, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran.
2 Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics, Management and Accounting, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran (Corresponding author)
3 Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics, Management and Accounting, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
چکیده [English]

The type of industries that grow the economy, based on their intensity of production factors, plays a crucial role in shaping income distribution within a society. Failure to consider the intensity of production factors in industries may result in a scenario where production grows while income inequality worsens. The primary objective of this study is to examine how variations in the value-added share of industries, based on production factor utilization intensity, impact income inequality in the economy of Iran. The research employs the generalized method of moments (GMM) and utilizes data from all 31 provinces of the country spanning from 2010 to 2019. Findings indicate that a proportional rise in the value-added share of labor-intensive and natural resource-intensive industries contributes to a decline in income inequality at the national level. Given Iran's significant abundance of labor and natural resources, these industries exhibit comparative advantages in line with the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. Consequently, prioritizing the nation's comparative advantages serves to enhance income distribution, aligning with the Stolper-Samuelson theorem. Thus, transitioning towards a market system mechanism over government intervention in price determination for production factors or industry selection not only preserves economic efficiency but also enhances income distribution compared to the present scenario.  The government must provide direct financial assistance to individuals with low incomes and adhere to appropriate strategies for redistributing income via the taxation framework. By doing so, based on the principles outlined in the second welfare theorem, it becomes feasible to attain a new optimal Pareto equilibrium, resulting in a more just allocation of income, all the while preserving overall efficiency.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Income Inequality
  • Factor Intensity
  • Stolper-Samuelson Theorem
  • Value-Added Share
  • Generalized Method of Moments

مراجع

- افقه، سید مرتضی؛ غرافی، مائده؛ و بصیرت، مهدی، (1394). «تأثیر نابرابری آموزش بر توزیع درآمد در ایران». مطالعات اقتصادی کاربردی ایران، 4(16): 179-203. https://aes.basu.ac.ir/article_1336.html
- امین‌رشتی، نارسیس؛ و اصغری، لیلا، (1390). «بررسی نقش هزینه‏های سلامت بر توزیع درآمد در ایران». اقتصاد مالی، 5(16): 135-160. https://journals.iau.ir/article_511201.html
- پورمختار، الهام؛ و مقدسی، رضا، (1394). «تأثیر ارزش­افزوده بخش‏های مختلف اقتصادی بر نابرابری درآمد در ایران (با تأکید بر بخش کشاورزی)». اقتصاد کشاورزی، 9(2): 37-54. https://www.iranianjae.ir/article_13216.html
- پیکتی، توماس، (1394). سرمایه در قرن بیست و یکم. ترجمۀ محمدرضا فرهادی­پور و علی صباغی، تهران: انتشارات آمه، چاپ اول.
- حاج‏امینی، مهدی، (1398). «ارزیابی وضعیت اشتغال‌زایی در برنامه‌های چهارم و پنجم توسعه اقتصادی، اجتماعی و فرهنگی». پژوهش‏ها و سیاست‏های اقتصادی، 27(92): 7-43.‎ https://qjerp.ir/article-1-2377-fa.html
- حاج‏امینی، مهدی؛ و کفیری، علیرضا، (1397). «ارزیابی تغییرات اشتغال و بیکاری طی برنامه‏های چهارم و پنجم توسعۀ ایران: رویکرد تجزیه کامل دیویژیا». بررسی مسائل اقتصاد ایران، 5(10): 29-52.‎ https://economics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_4312.html
- حبیبی، رقیه؛ حاج‏امینی، مهدی؛ و یاوری، کاظم، (a1399). «رابطه شدت عوامل تولید، رشد اقتصادی دستمزد محور و نابرابری درآمدی در اقتصاد ایران». سیاست‏های مالی و اقتصادی، 8(32): 73-101. https://doi.org/10.52547/qjfep.8.32.73
- حبیبی، رقیه؛ حاج‏امینی، مهدی؛ و یاوری، کاظم، (b1399). «تحلیلی ساختاری از رشد تقاضا و توزیع عاملی درآمد در اقتصاد ایران».  اقتصاد و تجارت نوین، 15(49): 3-26.‎ https://doi.org/10.30465/jnet.2021.6306
- خلخالی، علی؛ مهرگان، منصور؛ و دلیری، حسن، (1389). «بررسی اثرات ساختار آموزشی بر توزیع درآمد». پژوهش­های اقتصادی ایران، 4(2): 57-71.  https://journals.iau.ir/article_555556.html
- دهقانی، علی؛ حسینی، سید محمد حسن؛ فتاحی، محمد؛ و حکمتی‌فرید، صمد، (1396). «بررسی رابطه­ی رشد اقتصادی و توزیع درآمد در ایران طی دوره 1393-1350 رهیافت رگرسیون غیرخطی ملایم». مطالعات اقتصادی کاربردی ایران، 6(21): 236-213.   https://doi.org/10.22084/aes.2017.1804
- شهیکی‏تاش، محمدنبی؛ و علیزاده، صدیقه، (1400). «بررسی ارتباط میان فقر، توزیع درآمد و رشد اقتصادی در ایران (با رویکرد فازی)». مطالعات اقتصادی کاربردی ایران، 10(38): 54-39.  https://doi.org/10.22084/aes.2021.23461.3239
- طیبی، سیروان، (1396). «بررسی تأثیر رشد اقتصادی بر نابرابری درآمدی (آزمون فرضیه توماس پیکتی: تجربه کشورهای درحال‏توسعۀ نفتی)». پایان­نامۀ کارشناسی ارشد، دانشگاه تبریز.
- کازرونی، علیرضا؛ اصغرپور، حسن؛ و طیبی، سیروان، (1399). «تأثیر رشد کند اقتصادی بر توزیع درآمد: با تأکید بر فرضیۀ توماس پیکتی». پژوهش­های اقتصادی (رشد و توسعه پایدار). 20(1): 23-50. DOR: 20.1001.1.17356768.1399.20.1.1.2
- کفایی، سید محمد علی؛ و درستکار، عزت­ا...، (1386). «تأثیر آموزش رسمی بر توزیع درآمد در ایران». پژوهش­های اقتصادی ایران، 9(30): 53-75. https://ijer.atu.ac.ir/article_3648.html
- مهرآرا، حسن؛ و محمدیان، مجتبی، (1393). «بررسی عوامل موثر بر توزیع درآمد در اقتصاد ایران با رویکرد اقتصادسنجی بیزینی». پژوهش­های اقتصادی ایران، 19(61): 83-116. https://ijer.atu.ac.ir/article_1696.html
- نوفرستی، ابوالفضل؛ احمدی شادمهری، محمدطاهر؛ رزمی، سید محمد جواد؛ و نوفرستی، محمد، (1397). «اثر نابرابری بر رشد از کانال سرمایه ‌انسانی: مطالعه موردی ایران». سیاست‌های راهبردی و کلان، 6(24): 643-618.‎  https://doi.org/10.32598/JMSP.6.4.620
- Abdullah, A., Doucouliagos, H. & Manning, E., (2015). “Does education reduce income inequality? A meta-regression analysis”. Journal of Economic Surveys, 29: 301-316. https://doi.org/0.1111/joes.12056
- Afghah, M., Gharafi, M., & Basirat, M., (2016). “A study on the effect of education inequality on income distribution in Iran”. Journal of Applied Economics Studies in Iran, 4(16), 179-203.‏ https://aes.basu.ac.ir/article_1336.html (In Persian)
- Aghion P., Howitt, P. & Violante, G., (1998). Technology, knowledge and inequality. University College London: Mimeo.
- Aghion, P., Caroli, E. & Garcia-Penalosa, C., (1999). “Inequality and economic growth: the perspective of the new growth theories”. Journal of Economic literature, 37(4): 1615-1660. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.37.4.1615
- Ahluwalia, M. S., (1976). “Inequality, poverty and development”. Journal of Development Economics, 3(4): 307-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(76)90027-4
- Alesina A. & Perotti, R., (1996). “Income distribution, political instability and investment”. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper. no. 4486. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(95)00030-5
- Amar, S. & Pratama, I., (2020). “Exploring the link between income inequality, poverty reduction and economic growth: An ASEAN perspective”. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, 11(2): 24-41.
- Amin, R. N. & Asghari, L. (2011). “Surveying the role of health expenditure on income distribution in Iran”. Financial Economics, 5(16), 135-159.‏ https://journals.iau.ir/article_511201.html (In Persian)
- Anderson, T. W. & Hsiao, C., (1982). “Formulation and estimation of dynamic models using panel data”. Journal of Econometrics, 18: 47-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(82)90095-1
- Arellano, M. & Bond, S., (1991). “Some Tests of Specification for Panel Data: Monte Carlo Evidence and an Application to Employment Equations”. Review of Economic Studies, 58: 277-297. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297968
- Arellano, M. & Bover, O., (1995). “Another Look at the Instrumental Variable Estimation of Error-Components Models”. Journal of Econometrics, 68(1): 29-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)01642-D
- Baltagi, B. H., (2008). Econometric analysis of panel data. Third Edition, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
- Banerjee, A. V. & Newman, A. F., (1993). “Occupational choice and the process of development”. Journal of political economy, 101(2): 274-298. https://doi.org/10.1086/261876
- Barro, R. J., (2000). “Inequality and growth in a panel of countries”. Journal of Economic Growth, 5(1): 5-32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009850119329
- Benhabib, J. & Rustichini, A., (1996). “Social conflict and growth”. Journal of Economic Growth, 1(1): 125-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00163345
- Bhagwati, J., (1959). “Protection, real wages and real incomes”. The Economic Journal, 69(276): 733-748.‏ https://doi.org/10.2307/2227670
- Bourguignon, F., (1981). “Pareto superiority of unegalitarian equilibria in Stiglitz’s model of wealth distribution with convex saving function”. Econometrica, 49(6): 1469-1475. https://doi.org/10.2307/1911412
- Carbaugh, R. J., (2014). International Economics. 12th Ed.‏ Cengage Learning:  United States of America.
- Carbaugh, R. J., (2019). International economics. Cengage Learning. 
- Card, D., (2001). “Estimating the return to schooling: Progress on some persistent econometric problems”. Econometrica, 69(5): 1127-1160.‏ https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0262.00237
- Chagas, L. S. & Sant’Anna, V. P., (2024). “International trade and wage inequality: evidence from Brazil”. International Economics, 100536.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2024.100536
- Chaudhuri, S. & Yabuuchi, S., (2007). “Economic liberalization and wage inequality in the presence of labour market imperfection”. International Review of Economics & Finance, 16(4): 592-603.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2005.12.004
- Chaudhuri, S., (2008). “Wage inequality in a dual economy and international mobility of factors: Do factor intensities always matter?”. Economic Modelling, 25(6): 1155-1164.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2008.02.007
- Coady D. & Dizioli A., (2017). “Income Inequality and Education Revisited: Persistence, Endogeneity, and Heterogeneity”. IMF Report, 50(2): 1-15 https://doi.org/10.5089/9781475595741.001
- Croix D. & Doepke M., (2003). “Inequality and growth: why differential fertility matters”. American Economic Review, 93(4): 1091-1113. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282803769206214
- Currie, J., (2009). “Healthy, wealthy, and wise: Socioeconomic status, poor health in childhood, and human capital development”. Journal of Economic Literature, 47(1): 87-122.‏ https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.1.87
- Dehghani, A., Hosseini, S. M. H., Fattahy, M. & Hekmatifarid, S., (2017). “The impact of economic growth on Iranian income distribution (Nonlinear LSTAR approach)”. Journal of Applied Economics Studies in Iran, 6(21): 213-236.‏ https://doi.org/10.22084/aes.2017.1804 (In Persian)
- Delbianco, F., Dabús, C. & Caraballo, M. Á., (2014). “Income inequality and economic growth: New evidence from Latin America”. Cuadernos de Economía, 33(63): 381-398. https://doi.org/10.15446/cuad.econ.v33n63.45338
- Egawa, I., (1978). “Some remarks on the Stolper-Samuelson and Rybczynski theorems”. Journal of International Economics, 8(4): 525-536.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1996(87)90003-1
- Erman, L. & Te Kaat, D. M., (2019). “Inequality and growth: industry-level evidence”. Journal of Economic Growth, 24: 283-308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-019-09169-z
- Feenstra, R. C., (2004). Advanced international trade: Theory and evidence. Princeton university press.‏
- Feenstra, R. C., (2015). Advanced international trade: theory and evidence. Princeton university press.
- Galor O. & Tsiddon, D., (1997). “Technological progress, mobility and economic growth”. American Economic Review, 87(3): 363-382.
- Gandolfo, G. & Trionfetti, F., (2014). International trade theory and policy. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37314-5
- Greenwood, J. & Jovanovic, B., (1990). “Financial development, growth, and the distribution of income”. Journal of political Economy, 98(5, Part 1): 1076-1107. https://doi.org/10.1086/261720
- Gupta G. S. & Singh, R. D., (1984). “Income inequality across nations over time – how much and why”.  Southern Economic Journal, 51(1): 250-277. https://doi.org/10.2307/1058336
- Habibi, R. & Hajamini, M., (2020). “Structural analysis of demand growth and functional income distribution in the Iranian economy”. New Economy and Trad, 15(4): 3-26.‏ https://doi.org/10.52547/qjfep.8.32.73 (In Persian)
- Hajamini, M., (2020). “Assessment of Employment Status in Fourth and Fifth Economic, Social and Cultural Development Plans”. Journal of Economic Research and Policies, 27(92): 7-43.‏ https://qjerp.ir/article-1-2377-fa.html (In Persian)
- Hajamini, M. & Kafiri, A., (2019). “Assessing changes in employment and unemployment in the Iran’s fourth and fifth development plans: A logarithmic mean Divisia decomposition analysis”. Journal of Iranian Economic Issues, 5(2): 29-52.‏ https://economics.ihcs.ac.ir/article_4312.html (In Persian)
- Helpman, E., (1997). General purpose technologies and economic growth. MIT Press; Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.3386/w5773
- Hoff, K. & Stiglitz, J. E., (2004). “After the big bang? obstacles to the emergence of the rule of law in post-communist societies”. American Economic Review, 94(3): 753-763. https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828041464533
- Jianu, I., Dinu, M., Huru, D. & Bodislav, A., (2021). “Examining the Relationship between Income Inequality and Growth from the Perspective of EU Member States’ Stage of Development”. Sustainability, 13(9): 5204. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095204
- Johnson, H. G., (1959). “International trade, income distribution, and the offer curve”. The Manchester School, 27(3): 241-260.‏ https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9957.1959.tb01425.x
- Johnson, H. G., (1960). “Income distribution, the offer curve, and the effects of tariffs”. The Manchester School, 28(3): 215-242 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9957.1960.tb00042.x
- Kafaei, M. A. & Ezzatolah, D., (2007). “Formal education and income distribution”. Iranian Journal of Economic Research, 9(30): 53-76.‏ https://ijer.atu.ac.ir/article_3648.html (In Persian)
- Kazerooni, A., Asgharpour, H. & Tayyebi, S., (2020). “The impact of slow economic growth on inequality of income distribution with emphasis on Thomas Piketty's Hypothesis”.‏ The Economic Research (Sustainable Growth and Development), 20(1): 23-50.‏ DOR: 20.1001.1.17356768.1399.20.1.1.2 (In Persian)
- Khalkhali, A., Mehrgan, M. & Daliri, H., (2011). “Investigating the effects of education structure on the income distribution”.‏ Journal of Economic Modelling, 4(2): 57-71.‏ https://journals.iau.ir/article_555556.html (In Persian)
- Krugman, P. R., (1979). “International trade and income distribution: a Reconsideration”. NBER working paper, No.356. https://doi.org/10.3386/w0356
- Krugman, P. R., Obstfeld, M. & Melitz, M., (2012). International economics. 9th edition. Pearson.
- Krugman, P., (1980). “Scale economies, product differentiation, and the pattern of trade”. American economic review, 70(5): 950-959.‏
- Krugman, P., (1981). “Intraindustry specialization and the gains from trade”. Journal of political Economy, 89(5): 959-973.‏ https://doi.org/10.1086/261015
- Kuznets S., (1955). “Economic growth and income inequality”. American Economic Review, 45(1): 1-28.
- Lancaster, K., (1980). “Intra-industry trade under perfect monopolistic competition”. Journal of international Economics, 10(2): 151-175.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1996(80)90052-5
- Lechthaler, W. & Mileva, M., (2024). “Trade liberalization, wage inequality, and monetary policy”. Journal of International Money and Finance, 143: 103065.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2024.103065
- Ma, Y., (2009). “Trade theorems in a model of vertical production chain”. International Review of Economics & Finance, 18(1): 70-80.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2007.08.003
- Markusen, J. R. & Venables, A. J., (2000). “The theory of endowment, intra-industry and multi-national trade”. Journal of international economics, 52(2): 209-234.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1996(99)00055-0
- Mayer, S. E., (2010). “The relationship between income inequality and inequality in schooling”. Theory and research in Education, 8(1): 5-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509356346
- Mehic, A., (2018). “Industrial employment and income inequality: Evidence from panel data”. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 45: 84-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2018.02.006
- Mehrara, M. & Mohammdian, M., (2014). “Factors affecting the income distribution in iran: a bayesian econometric approach”.‏ Iranian Journal of Economic Research, 19(61): 83-116.‏ https://ijer.atu.ac.ir/article_1696.html (In Persian)
- Nickell, S., (1981). “Biases in Dynamic Models with Fixed Effects”. Econometrica, 49(6): 1417-1426. https://doi.org/10.2307/1911408
- Noferesti, A., Ahmadi Shadmehri, M. T., Razmi, S. M. J. & Noferesti, M., (2018). “The effect of inequality on growth of the human capital channel: Case Study for Iran”. Quarterly Journal of the Macro and Strategic Policies, 6(24): 618-643.‏ https://doi.org/10.32598/JMSP.6.4.620 (In Persian)
- O’Donnell, O., Van Doorslaer, E. & Van Ourti, T., (2015). “Health and inequality”. In: Handbook of income distribution (Vol. 2: 1419-1533). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59429-7.00018-2
- Panizza U., (2002). “Income, inequality and economic growth: evidence from American data”. Journal of Economic Growth, 7(1): 25-41. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013414509803
- Piketty, T., (2015). Capital in the twenty-first century. Trans. Mohammadreza Farhadipour and Ali Sabbaghi. Tehran: Ameh Publication‏ (In Persian)
- Piketty, T., (2014). Capital in the 21st Century. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
- Pourmokhtar, E. & Moghadasi, R., (2015). “The effect of different economic sector’s value-added on income inequality in Iran (Emphasized on agricultural)”. Agricultural Economics, 9(2): 37-54. https://www.iranianjae.ir/article_13216.html (In Persian)
- Ranaldi, M. & Milanović, B., (2022). “Capitalist systems and income inequality”. Journal of Comparative Economics, 50(1): 20-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2021.07.005
- Rao, V. S., (1971). “Tariffs and welfare of factor owners: A normative extension of the Stolper-Samuelson theorem”. Journal of International Economics, 1(4): 401-415.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1996(71)90040-7
- Rassekh, F., (2010). “Is Stolper–Samuelson dangerous and FPE a failure?”. International Review of Economics & Finance, 19(4): 555-561.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2009.10.011
- Robinson, S., (1976). “A note on the U-hypothesis relating inequality and economic development”. American Economic Review, 66(3): 437-440. 
- Rodgers, G. B., (1979). “Income and inequality as determinants of mortality: an international cross-section analysis”. Population studies, 33(2): 343-351.‏ https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.1979.10410449
- Roghaye, H., Hajamini, M. & Yavari, K., (2021). “The Relationship among Factor Intensities, Wage-led Economic Growth and Income Inequality in the Iranian economy”. Quarterly Journal of Fiscal and Economic Policies, 8(32): 73-101.‏ https://doi.org/10.30465/jnet.2021.6306 (In Persian)
- Rybczynski, T. M., (1955). “Factor endowment and relative commodity prices”. Economica, 22(88): 336-341.‏ https://doi.org/10.2307/2551188
- Saint-Paul G. & Verdier, T., (1993). “Education, democracy and growth”. Journal of Development Economics, 42(2): 399-407. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(93)90027-K 
- Salvatore, D., (2019). International economics. 11th Edition, John Wiley & Sons.
- Salvatore, D., (2019). International economics. John Wiley & Sons.‏
- Shahiakitash, M. & Alizadeh, S., (2021). “Assessing the relationship between poverty, income distribution and economic growth in Iran (FLSR fuzzy approach)”. Journal of Applied Economics Studies in Iran, 10(38): 39-54.‏ https://doi.org/10.22084/aes.2021.23461.3239 (In Persian)
- Shin, I., (2012). “Income inequality and economic growth”. Economic Modelling, 29(5): 2049-2057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2012.02.011
- Sonin K., (2003). “Why the rich may favour poor protection of property rights”. Journal of Comparative Economics, 31(4): 715-731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2003.09.005
- Stolper, W. F. & Samuelson, P. A., (1941). “Protection and real wages”. The Review of Economic Studies, 9(1): 58-73.‏ https://doi.org/10.2307/2967638
- Sylwester, K., (2002). “Can education expenditure reduce income inequality?”. Economics of Education Review, 21(1): 43-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(00)00038-8
- Tayyibi, S., (2017). “Examining the Effect of Economic Growth on Income Inequality (Testing Thomas Piketty's Hypothesis: The Experience of Developing Oil-Producing Countries)”. Master's thesis, University of Tabriz (In Persian)
- Venieris Y. P. & Gupta, D. K., (1986). “Income distribution and socio-political instability as determinants of savings: A cross-sectional model”. Journal of Political Economy, 94(4): 873-883. https://doi.org/10.1086/261412
- Wilkinson, R. & Pickett, K., (2010). The spirit level: Why equality is better for everyone. Penguin UK.‏
- Wilkinson, R. G., (1997). “Socioeconomic determinants of health: Health inequalities: Relative or absolute material standards?”. Bmj, 314: 591.‏ https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.314.7080.591
- Yabuuchi, S. & Chaudhuri, S., (2007). “International migration of labour and skilled–unskilled wage inequality in a developing economy”. Economic Modelling, 24(1): 128-137.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2006.06.006
- Yabuuchi, S., (2007). “Unemployment and international factor movement in the presence of skilled and unskilled labor”. Review of Development Economics, 11(3): 437-449.‏ https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2007.00368.x
- Ylönen, S., (1987). “The Stolper-Samuelson theorem under decreasing returns to scale”. Economics Letters, 24(1): 83-87.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1765(87)90186-8
فصلنامه مطالعات اقتصادی کاربردی ایران
دوره 13، شماره 52
اسفند 1403
صفحه 41-71

فایل ها

هم رسانی

ارجاع به این مقاله

آمار